3 Examples of Restructuring In-Line Lists

3 Examples of Restructuring In-Line Lists 3 Examples of Restructuring In-Line Lists 3 Examples of Restructuring In-Line Lists By Mark Nichol â€Å"In-line list† is simply a fancy term for a list of things in a sentence that aren’t treated as a vertical list- that is, a list formatted so that each item is positioned below the previous one (often with a number, letter, bullet, or other symbol to set the items off visually from each other and sometimes represent a hierarchy or sequence). As with vertical lists, careless organization of list items in in-line lists results in syntactically flawed sentences such as those shown below. However, as opposed to vertical lists, which often err in grammatical inconsistency of the items, in-line lists are often marred by a poor organization of list items (and items in lists within lists) and incorrect use of transitional elements such as conjunctions and punctuation marks. A discussion and a revision after each example explains the error and illustrates a solution. 1. The category includes those with low incomes, poor credit history, inadequate documentation, or those living with a disability, illness, or those with a criminal record. This sentence unhelpfully makes no distinction between three categories of list items: financial, medical, and legal complications. The revision reorganizes the unstructured collection of six items into these categories: â€Å"The category includes those with low incomes, poor credit history, or inadequate documentation, those living with a disability or illness, or those with a criminal record.† (Because one category itself constitutes a list of three items, some writers may prefer to mark the three larger divisions with semicolons rather than commas, but because of the repetitive phrasing beginning with those, the more potent punctuation is not necessary.) 2. They build large capital reserves, have great relationships with their lenders, and trusting relationships with their customers, vendors, and shareholders. Here, five elements are syntactically structured as a list, but the third item (which itself refers to three things) lacks a verb, so the sentence structure is flawed: â€Å"They build large capital reserves, have great relationships with their lenders, and have trusting relationships with their customers, vendors, and shareholders.† (Similar to the previous example, because the distinct items are clearly indicated by parallel use of verbs, no hand-holding replacement of commas with semicolons is necessary in this case.) Another option is to revise this sentence using conjunctions in place of some punctuation marks: â€Å"They build large capital reserves and have great relationships with their lenders and trusting relationships with their customers, vendors, and shareholders.† 3. Do we have a great team, a strong road map, and the required processes, systems and alliances, and sufficient resources to sustain our journey?      In this case, the sentence is almost correct, but qualifying resources with sufficient renders it a syntactical orphan. The simplest solution is to omit the adjective and allow resources to share required with the items that precede it: â€Å"Do we have a great team and a strong road map, as well as the required processes, systems and alliances, and resources to sustain our journey?†Ã‚   If you feel that resources does not belong with the other items as shown in the revision above, consider this solution: â€Å"Do we have a great team and a strong road map- as well as the required processes, systems and alliances- and resources to sustain our journey?† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Comparative Forms of AdjectivesComma Before ButThrew and Through

Determining the Strength of Acids and Bases

Determining the Strength of Acids and Bases Strong electrolytes are completely dissociated into ions in water. The acid or base molecule does not exist in aqueous solution, only ions. Weak electrolytes are incompletely dissociated. Here are definitions and examples of strong and weak acids and strong and weak bases. Strong Acids Strong acids completely dissociate in water, forming H and an anion. There are six strong acids. The others are considered to be weak acids. You should commit the strong acids to memory: HCl: hydrochloric acidHNO3: nitric acidH2SO4: sulfuric acidHBr: hydrobromic acidHI: hydroiodic acidHClO4: perchloric acid If the acid is 100 percent dissociated in solutions of 1.0 M or less, it is called strong. Sulfuric acid is considered strong only in its first dissociation step;  100 percent dissociation isnt true as solutions become more concentrated.   H2SO4 → H HSO4- Weak Acids A weak acid only partially dissociates in water to give H and the anion. Examples of weak acids include hydrofluoric acid, HF, and acetic acid, CH3COOH. Weak acids include: Molecules that contain an ionizable proton. A molecule with a formula starting with H usually is an acid.Organic acids containing one or more carboxyl group, -COOH. The H is ionizable.Anions with an ionizable proton (e.g., HSO4- → H SO42-).CationsTransition metal cationsHeavy metal cations with high chargeNH4 dissociates into NH3 H Strong Bases Strong bases dissociate 100 percent into the cation and OH- (hydroxide ion). The hydroxides of the Group I and Group II metals usually are considered to be strong bases. LiOH: lithium hydroxideNaOH: sodium hydroxideKOH: potassium hydroxideRbOH: rubidium hydroxideCsOH: cesium hydroxide*Ca(OH)2: calcium hydroxide*Sr(OH)2: strontium hydroxide*Ba(OH)2: barium hydroxide * These bases completely dissociate in solutions of 0.01 M or less. The other bases make solutions of 1.0 M and are 100 percent dissociated at that concentration. There are other strong bases than those listed, but they are not often encountered. Weak Bases Examples of weak bases include ammonia, NH3, and diethylamine, (CH3CH2)2NH. Like weak acids, weak bases do not completely dissociate in aqueous solution. Most weak bases are anions of weak acids.Weak bases do not furnish OH- ions by dissociation. Instead, they react with water to generate OH- ions.

International financial management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

International financial management - Essay Example Most investors in the UK and other parts of the world choose to place a portion of their portfolios in foreign securities. The decision, however, should involve an analysis of various mutual funds, exchange traded funds and bond offerings. To be successful in this venture of overseas investment, the company must begin first by determining the risk that characterizes the investment climate of the countries under its consideration. This would involve a careful analysis of both the economic, political and business risks associated with such investments in these countries (Michalet, 1997, p.19). The main factor to be considered by the company before investing overseas would be the types of the markets to be penetrated. There exist the developed, emerging and the frontier markets. The developed markets are those that consist of the largest and most industrialized economies whose economic systems are well developed, with politically stable environments and where the rule of law is well ent renched. These markets are considered by several economists to be the safest investment destinations, but with lower economic growth rates often trailing those of countries in earlier stages of development. An investment analysis of such markets would concentrate more on the current economic and market cycles and less by the political considerations. This would be the situation when the firm decides to invest in the United States of America (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2011, P.77).

Educational leadership Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Educational leadership - Research Paper Example School Based Management (SBM) is a model of instructional leadership which sets out clear guidelines for decentralised school administration and is successfully introduced in several countries (Dr. Pushpanadham 2006 p.41). Decentralised educational planning requires organised participation to substantiate the efforts of educational reforms. Past entities that functioned towards decentralised education such as Parents Teachers Association, Village Planning Committees and School Development Committees did not have an organised plan or statutory recognition that clearly pointer out powers and responsibilities. Community participation is considered as the central facilitating criteria to ensure quality education that is par with the principal’s initiative, professionalism of teachers, organisational flexibility, teacher collegiality, accountability and pedagogical flexibility. Similarly the cycle of disempowerment prevalent in marginal communities can be broken only if there is a criteria for evaluating and monitoring school performance that includes accountability to local administration in the region. Research indicates that effective decentralisation of management depends on an effective leadership. In school management an effective principal must offer leadership in promulgating change in school policies and programs. An effective leader can successfully resolve disciplinary issues and advice and direct teachers to abide by policies that can create a positive impact on the performance of the school and institutional climate. There is also a positive correlation between teacher’s job satisfaction and school climate. School Based Model encourages principals, students, teachers and parents to exhibit more control over the educational policies by offering the responsibility to decide about the personnel, budget

How it portrays the human condition Essay Example for Free

How it portrays the human condition Essay In the time its set of 1801, social classes were arife within the country. It was normality to marry someone within the same class, and was frowned upon to do anything different. The importance of class is evident when Cathy says: if the wicked man had not brought Heathcliff so low, I shouldnt have thought it [not to marry him]. This signifies how in this piece of literature Heathcliff is opressed by the rigid class system, and becomes a victim in the way that class is the very thing that prevents Cathy Heathcliff marrying. The fact Heathcliff is told every day how worthless he is and how lucky he is to be in a decent house provokes his hate towards the separation of their society into classes. As of the way Hindley treated him like a servant and degrading him, Heathcliff shows pure hatred towards him. He also exposes this putrid manner towards the Lintons, whom in time changed Catherine, in a way to believe she was much too good for Heathcliff. We are first made aware of how much class is going to affect Heathcliffs and Cathys love for each other when Catherine is attacked by dogs, in which the blame lies upon Heathcliff. The Lintons then describe him as: a wicked boy quite unfit for a decent house. Although it is hardly frowned upon to marry someone from a different class in todays society, this novel remains relevant on the human condition by the fact that it portrays how someone will do truly anything in their power to be with the person they love with, which is of course shown by Heathcliff. The fact he has been placed in a lower class differentiates how Cathy shows her love towards him, forcing Heathcliff to try and better himself. This even results in Heathcliff attempting to drive Cathy mad with jealousy, by marrying Isabella. In his pursuit of Cathys love, he manages to destroy all around him, affecting his own self. This means that Bronti could even be supporting the upholding of these conventional values. Initially the answer would seem to be no, as the reader sympathizes with Heathcliff; the gypsy oppressed by a rigid class system and constantly referred to as imp or fiend. But as Heathcliff pursues his revenge and persecution of the innocent, the danger posed by him to the community becomes apparent. Like other novels of the 1830s and 40s, Wuthering Heights may really suggest the necessity of preserving traditional ways; to prevent danger to the world that is perhaps even unnecessary, because fighting for this cause still wont get you what you want. This helps us understand even if we know that ultimately we cannot obtain what we want, we will still fight for it the best we can; part of the human condition. Cathy is so induced by this system of class, she thinks of class as part of the reason to marry someone or a reason to love. Cathy thinks of Edgar as a way of elevating her position in the community, which can be seen when shes talking to Nelly (and I shall like to be the greatest woman of the neighbourhood). Because Cathy is so interested in society, it comes to a point where it corrupts her love for her own family. This is apparent to her relationship with Nelly; before Cathy was seduced by this idea of high-society, she regarded Nelly as just as important as her own mother. Though now, Cathy treats Nelly with disrespect, and even attacks her, much to Nellys anger: O, Miss, thats a nasty trick! You have no right to nip me, and Im not going to bear it. This is important on the grounds that this represents the human condition in a way that we can all be deeply influenced by something to hurt the ones we love. By a range of devices, Bronti shows how each character is motivated. Throughout the novel we see how human motivation encourages a huge change in Cathy. At the beginning of the novel Bronti portrays her as a content, free, family-orientated girl. For illustration, the novel says Cathy was hardly six years old, but she could ride any horse in the stable. This shows that Cathy was not yet influenced to be ladylike or prosperous, and was still a kindred spirit. She is still portrayed as this wild young girl, until the point where Heathcliff and she are spying on Thrushcross Grange, and are attacked by dogs. When they are found by the Lintons, Heathcliff is merely sent away deemed as a wicked boy quite unfit for a decent house. However, Cathy is invited into the house, and the Lintons show her a whole new way of life, judging by her new concept of class, and anew sense of etiquette. The reader is told that her remaining family have noticed her new self, especially Nelly: there lighted from a handsome black pony a very dignified person. The fact Nelly compares Cathys change to a horse links in with her love of riding horses, as shown earlier in the novel. Now this change has occurred, we now see how Cathy is not only motivated by love and fun as she was with Heathcliff, but by more shallow things perhaps, such as wealth and appearance. She is shown to be motivated by wealth when she discusses Edgar with Nelly (and he will be rich). She in fact talks about Edgar in such a way that she deserves this wealth and life of upper class. You can see how shes motivated in a shallow fashion when she says to Heathcliff: if you wash your face, and brush your hair, it will be alright. But you are so dirty! This shows that now, after these new found motivations, Heathcliff has to change how he is to acquire to Cathys needs, and in order to be loved by Cathy. On the other hand, Heathcliff is driven by one thing only; his animalistic and pure love for Cathy. Although he is motivated by love, other things quash this motivation, such as cowardice. Heathcliff is jealous of what she sees in Edgar, and tries to tell Cathy he loves her, without success. He is close to declaring his love for her when theyre arguing, and he says: the crosses are for the evenings you have spent with the Lintons, the dots for those spent with me to show that I do care. Fuelled by his love for Cathy, and how is world is centred purely on her actions, Heathcliff does some very spiteful things, condemning him as a gothic character. For example, he marries Isabella purely to induce jealousy within Catherine. The novel shows how Heathcliff feels that if Cathy had not become a lady of etiquette with new motivations then they would never have been separated. This can be seen when he says: Because misery, and degradation, and death, and nothing that God or Satan could inflict would have parted us. With the human condition in question, this is important because it shows how humans can feel hatred not towards a person exactly, but towards the actions and changes that occur in that person. In the novel we are also shown by Bronti how certain circumstances like loss and jealousy can change someone, and their condition of humanity. After his wife dies, Hindleys character changes dramatically. Before this loss, he loved his family dearly, and was content with his life. However, after her death, Hindley is subdued into a world of alcoholism and fury, to the point where he endangers the lives of his loved ones. This is shown when Hindley carried him [his own son] upstairs and lifted him over the banister and actually drops him. Hindley is also affected by jealousy. Because his adoptive brother, Heathcliff, was favoured by his father, he had to endure being shadowed by Heathcliff all of his childhood, until his father died. Considering this, Hindley grew up to hate Heathcliff, and eventually destroyed Heathcliff, using him as a servant, placing him in a lower class. Therefore, Hindley indirectly ruined Heathcliffs chances of obtaining Cathys hand in marriage. In conclusion, I feel that the novel by Emily Bronti helps us to understand the human condition in a way that no other novel does. Her unique way of showing love within the novel meant that she didnt just show the initial attraction of love, but how it can corrupt ones other feelings and thoughts. Bronti s use of language within the novel displays the emotions and motivations of the characters successfully, and gives a great sense of the reality of the human condition to the novel. As a result of this, Bronti will remain one of the greatest writers to of lived, and her books will, and currently, remain as relevant and as important as they did in the 19th century.   Laura Pearson Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Miscellaneous section.

Enslaving Nature of Love Exposed in Lucretius Essay -- Lucretius Essay

Enslaving Nature of Love Exposed in Lucretius In Dryden's Lucretius, the speaker argues that (1) Love is a sickness, (2) Love's sickness enslaves, and (3) all attempts to remedy Love's sickness are vain and will only frustrate the lover. Just as Milton's Adam and Eve become enslaved to sin by disobeying God, so mankind becomes enslaved to Love when pierced with Cupid's "winged arrow". In Milton, there is redemption and freedom through Christ, but in Dryden, no salvation from love is possible. This poem leaves mankind in a hopeless, frustrated state, unable to break free from love's yoke. This essay will center on the last heroic couplet: "All wayes they try, successeless all they prove,/To cure the secret sore of lingering love". In order to prove the first premise, this essay will begin by examining the last line of the couplet which argues that the lovers are trying to "cure the secret sore". This line prompts the idea that love is a sore that needs a cure, but it also raises two questions: (1) why does the speaker call love a secret sore? And (2) how does the speaker use this imagery in the rest of the poem? In the poem's mythology, love is a sore left by Love's arrow (which probably alludes to Cupid's handy-work) as described in the first line of the poem: "he who feels the Fiery dart/ Of strong desire transfix his amorous heart". The "secret sore" can also refer to the idea that Love's wound is concealed (as an internal injury), and thus cannot be helped by external/physical remedies. The speaker argues that even sex proves unprofitable in trying to cure love: "Our hands pull nothing from the parts they strain,/But wande... ...ess appetite". It seems as though the speaker is trying to frustrate the lover by offering impossible remedies. The speaker amplifies frustration by using an eye rhyme to finish the poem. This doesn't show Dryden's lack of skill, but rather a way to frustrate a reader's rhyme. The last heroic couplet provides no hope and leaves only frustrating thoughts for the lover: "All wayes they try, successeless all they prove,/To cure the secret sore of lingering love". The speaker even argues that though Nature provides satisfaction for physical urges (e.g. hunger and thirst), Nature does not give Love the same satisfaction. The speaker describes a lover as a type of Sisyphus, enslaved in a vicious cycle of trying to accomplish the task (of fulfilling love's desires), only to have the problem roll back down and having to start over again.

Analysis of graduation Essay

During the mid nineteen hundreds, racial segregation was prevalent in the United States, especially in the South. In the essay, â€Å"Graduation† Maya Angelou tells about her experience of graduating from the eighth grade in Stamps, Arkansas. In today’s society, a graduating ceremony is exciting for all, however, it is not uncommon. Often, people take these type of experiences for granted. This was not the case for Angelou. To her, having a graduating ceremony in her hometown was considered a privilege. The writer structures the essay to evoke feelings from her readers and to get her point across. Angelou uses literary elements to convey the overall point of the essay, starting with the title. â€Å"Graduation† references the commencement ceremony that takes place during the essay. It implies a pronouncement of the writer moving on and growing up. Structure helps convey the main reason the writer wrote this essay. The essay is structured in a way that the reader can feel empathy for the writer and understand what she and her community were dealing with during the nineteen forties. Also, Angelou structures her essay to show how the experience, both the good and the bad, helped her to understand herself. Tone plays an important role in conveying the overall point of Angelou’s essay. There are two major shifts that occur throughout the essay. The essay started off with an excited and happy tone about it. When Angelou writes, â€Å"The children in Stamps trembled visibly with anticipation. Some adults were excited too, but to be certain the whole young population had come down with graduation epidemic† (15) it exemplifies the happy tone of the essay. Angelou was thrilled to finally be graduating and moving on to all the possibilities life would bring her. However, in the middle of the essay the tone completely shifts in the opposite direction. Once the two white politicians walk on stage, the entire atmosphere of the graduation changes. Angelou expresses that her mood has changed when she says, â€Å"The man’s dead words fell like brinks around the auditorium and too many fell in my belly† (21). The racist nature of his remarks were not clear to him but still managed to make Angelou feel little, as if she could never amount to  anything. The writer includes this in her essay to reflect her pain and to show how one man had such a negative effect on everyone attending the ceremony. Fortunately, toward the end of the essay, the tone shifts back to being happy, joyful and somewhat hopeful. When Henry Reed lead the students in the singing of the Negro National Anthem, it brought back a sense of unity to the community. For the first time Angelou truly heard the lyrics and they finally gave meaning to her; she felt optimistic of what could come in her future. Not only does Angelou use literary elements in the essay, she also includes important details to reference to the specific time period. A big part of the message Angelou is trying to convey is the racial segregation that is taking place. In the beginning of the essay, the writer compares the white and black schools to each other. She goes on to define the black school by what it lacks, â€Å"neither lawn, nor hedges, nor tennis courts, nor climbing ivy† (16). This reveals a clear illustration of what the white schools were given and how unimportant and unattended to the black schools were. Bigger than that, it defines society’s priorities in the nineteen forties. Another prime example of the lack of importance on the black communities was the name of the school, Layfette County Training School. Black schools were called â€Å"training schools† because it was believed blacks didn’t need a real education. Black schools did not focused on further education, mainly because they weren’t given equal opportunities to do so. When Donleavy is referring to the graduates as future athletes and nothing else, it’s an insult to them because he’s implying that they can never amount to anything greater than that. Angelou includes these details in the essay to show the type of attitude white people had toward the black community. The overall reason for Angelou to write a piece that holds as much meaning as â€Å"Graduation† was to share her experiences with the world. She wanted to make readers aware of the reality of racism. She allows the reader to understand, and for some maybe even relate. A deeper message Angelou wanted to convey with the reader is that no one person, no matter the color of their skin, should be able to put a person down. A day that was supposed to be one of the happiest in her life was made ugly by the racist remarks of a white man. Seeing Angelou overcome that with the help of her classmate Henry was a powerful thing. Using specific structure, tone shifts and important references to the time period the writer was able  to write an essay that was both thought-provoking and emotional. Angelou not only wrote for the entertainment of her readers, she wanted to teach readers the reality of racism. But beyond that, she showed them how one man’s words or actions were not going to keep her down. Angelou wrote about something that wasn’t talked about often, black graduations, and with the writing techniques she used turned it into a famous book.

Augustine Original Sin

Liberty University The Theological Studies of Saint Augustine in Relation to the Doctrine of Original Sin A Paper Submitted To Dr. John Landers In Partial Fulfillment for the Course CHHI-520 Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary By Jaaval Cato Lynchburg, Virginia October 7, 2012 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 AUGUSTINE’S TAKE ON ORIGINAL SIN†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 AUGUSTINE’S TAKE ON ORIGINAL SIN AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO BAPTISM†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 OPPOSTIONS TO AUGUSTINE’S VIEW ON ORIGINAL SIN †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 0 MANICHEAN IMPACT ON AUGUSTINE’S VIEW OF ORIGINAL SIN†¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 11 PELAGIUS, CELESTIUS, AND JULIAN IN OPPOSITION WITH ORIGINAL SIN†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13 CONCLUSION†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 16BIBLIOGRAPHY†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 17 Introduction The doctrine of original sin has been deliberated by Theologians, as well as Augustine for over fifteen centuries, although it is evidently stated in Romans 5:12 by the Apostle Paul, â€Å"Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death came through sin, and so death spread to all because all have sinned† (NRSV).By this statement, the apostle Paul informs the reader that sin and death entered the world through one man (Adam), with the result of it permeating the whole of humankind like a poison. â€Å"The solidarity of the human race with Adam led Ambrose to say, ‘Adam existed, and in him we all existed†¦ In Adam I fell, and in Adam I was cast out of Paradise, in Adam I died. ’† The doctrine of original sin has provoked much opposition amongst religious academia in regards to its teaching.It is one of the most â€Å"baleful† of ideas says, one modern scholar; it is â€Å"repulsive† and â€Å"revolting† says another. I have seen it variously described as an insult to the dignity of humanity, an insult to the grace and loving kindness of God, and an insult to God and humankind alike. Aurelius Augustinus (Saint Augustine) has contributed significantly to the discussion that remains highly contested in our present day, which coincidently i s not primarily exclusive of the church and those who disagree with him.All of Christendom and the entire church as a whole are indebted to Augustine who conveyed the theology of â€Å"original sin† and it implication for Christians today. Augustine's doctrine of justification is rooted heavily in his doctrine of original sin, for his doctrine of 2 justification provides the solution to the problem that his doctrine of original sin creates. This theological endeavor was initiated by Augustine in the late fourth and early fifth century. His full name is Aurelius Augustinus born November 13, 354. He is the major church father of the West and known predominantly as Augustine.Augustine’s view of original sin was initially shaped by early life experience beginning with his own pagan immoral behavior as a youth in Africa, with his time studying Manichaeanism, and the Genesis account of Adam and Eve. Augustine although know for his writings on original sin was not the first t o write about this subject matter, early church fathers such as Saint Ambrose the Bishop of Milan who subsequently was a mentor to Augustine and baptized him said in a commentary written on the Gospel of Luke â€Å"before we are born, we are all infected with the contagion of sin. Augustine provided much greater analysis ever-increasing and fine-tuning these thoughts from opinion into Christian dogma. In the biblical perspective, sin is not only an act of wrongdoing but a state of alienation from God. In reformed theology the doctrine of original sin has a firm biblical support: Genesis 3 where Adam and Eve trust the word of the serpent over the Word of God. Scripture also gives greater insight into the corruption initiated by Adam; this can be observed in two ways. First is the inherit sin caused by Adam, Romans 5:12-21 states that by one man was the 3 onduit in which sin entered the world. Secondly, Psalms 51:5 quotes Kind David as stating, â€Å"Behold, I was brought forth in i niquity and in sin my mother conceived me† (NASB). This statement references the sin all humankind has inherit from the one man (Adam), being passed from one generation to the next. Hence, the sin of Adam defiles all humanity including children, who have no other sins of their own. Therefore, all human beings are condemned because of the sin of Adam (â€Å"original sin†), which they bring with them and for which they become responsible, unless they are baptized.Augustine writes in his Confession poising several rhetorical questions about the sin inherited by children stating, â€Å"Alas for the sins of men! Man saith this, and Thou dost compassionate him; for Thou didst create him, but didst not create the sin that is in him. Who bringeth to my remembrance the sin of my infancy? For before Thee none is free from sin, not even the infant which has lived but a day upon the earth. Who bringeth this to my remembrance? Doth not each little one, in whom I behold that which I do not remember of myself? In what, then, did I sin? Is it that I cried for the breast? Augustine goes even further alluding to the distress he brought upon his mother saying, â€Å"she did weep and mourn, and in her agony was seen the inheritance of Eve,—seeking in sorrow what in sorrow she had brought forth. † The theme of being stained by sin will be broached by Augustine in other writings; such as, City of God, sermons, and letters addressing contemporaries who stood in opposition to his point of view. Augustine Bishop of Hippo began to institute his beliefs on how blemish of sin originating from Adam has corrupted the will of mankind; incidentally this ignited the argument 4 f his era that persists even in the present day church. There were many opponents who challenged Augustine, for instance fellow Bishops, Pelagius, the Donatist, the Manichaeism and the philosophers known as the Platonist. The latter, were two groups that Augustine earlier in his life were aff iliated with; therefore, he comprised a detailed list of those proponents who opposed his belief on original sin in addition to other beliefs he held and debate one another, each contesting the others line of reasoning. In fact these debates continued between Augustine and his contemporaries up until his death in A.D 540 having not completed his refutation of a Pelagian, Julian of Eclanum. Augustine and Julian debated such topics as the theory that grace was not necessary for saving action, free choice and will, baptism, and original sin. Julian would call the idea of original sin a contradiction of logic; being a prolific writer, Julian composed enough writings to comprise eight volumes all of which were sent to Augustine. Augustine was a hard worker and would write day and night, due to the large quantities of letters sent by Julian; Augustine spent a large amount of time in his latter days responding to Julian.The time was a great lost and Augustine was unable to complete his fin al compilation of letters and comments on sermons to be added in his writings called Retratctiones. In this present day, the argument on original sin remains a topic of contention, both in churches (Protestants and Catholics) and in the academic world. If a question were poised to most church parishioners, asking them if they had a view about original sin, one might garner a wide variety of response. Some might say they have no knowledge of this topic, some may refer to scripture as presented by the Apostle Paul in Romans 5:12 believing that it was applicable to 5 hat era and not for the present, to a belief that original sin is a matter relating to physical gratification instead of it being a consequence of Adam’s sin. Augustine, by his own account sheds light on his own personal struggle with lust by including it in his argument on original sin and free will. Augustine clearly gives insight to this matter by stating that sin does not arise from the body’s assault upo n the soul: bodily insubordination follows from the soul’s insubordination to God. This crucial matter is important in the life of all Christian believers, effecting their spiritual ormation and relationship with God. Augustine’s Take on Original Sin Based on his study of Genesis, chapter 1-3, Augustine formulated the foundation what most of Christianity recognizes today as the doctrine of sin. Augustine believed that Adam possessed original righteousness and perfection. He was immune from physical ills, surpassed all others in intellect, and was in a state of justification, illumination, and beatitude. The freedom Adam possessed was described by Augustine as posse non peccare (i. e. , able not to sin).According to Augustine, the fall of Adam thwarted mankind’s ability of being unable to sin. For Augustine there are several factors that have contributed to this loss and the effects have been devastated for mankind. The cunning of evil, free will and the inborn w ill of mankind endows them the capability to persevere and prevail over sin. The essence of original sin consists of humanity's participation in, and co-responsibility for, Adam's perverse choice. All are one with Adam when he made his choice and therefore all willed in and with Adam. 6Augustine focused on the will of man, believing that sin strongly affected and overpowered it primarily because of Adam’s sin. Consequently, humanity was left with little else then that day when they are called home to be with the Lord. Augustine reiterating that the pride of Adam – the deliberate choice to put his will above God’s Adam fell, and took us all with him into a fallen condition. Basically the only freedom mankind has is the freedom to sin, and the ability to receive the grace given by God. Augustine findings are not new discoveries; the topic had been proposed and argued centuries before Augustine.Ireaneus of Lyons had similarly argued that the Genesis account and the disobedience of Adam (failing to obey God) brought about hereditary sin, corrupting the good work God had done. For by summing up in Himself the whole human race from the beginning to the end, He has also summed up its death. From this it is clear that the Lord suffered death, in obedience to His Father, upon that day on which Adam died while he disobeyed God. Augustine having been mentored by the Bishop of Milan, commonly known as Saint Ambrose may have acquired the point view that God held all mankind responsible for the disobedience and culpability of Adam.The solidarity of the human race with Adam led Ambrose to say, â€Å"Adam existed, and in him we all existed†¦ In Adam I fell, and in Adam I was cast out of Paradise, in Adam I died. † Ambrose succeeded in opening the Scriptures for Augustine, arousing in him a desire to discover them for himself. City of God, written by Augustine, attributes disobedience to choice; â€Å"free will in arrogance and disobedienceâ⠂¬  will drive man to his death, this death not being from the natural, which was the 7 common view argued by Pelagius and his followers but as a direct result of man being rebellious to the commands of Yahweh.Augustine also recognized that people being made in the image of God were distinct from the natural world, having a soul but not immortal as the angels, in-between. The Spiritual souls of human beings give access to a saving truth and goodness when they freely adhere to their Creator in friendship available through grace, which was restored by the second Adam, Christ. When man obeys they are granted immortality, as the Angels, and if they are disobedient they will die, not pertaining to the physical death of the body but a spiritual death (eternal separation from God).Augustine’s Take on Original Sin and Its Relationship to Baptism. When points of view are constructed and formulated, most often realization and answers result. A derived result for Augustine was the rela tionship between original sin, and baptism, including infant. According to Catholic tradition infant baptism is a sacrament that must be carried out. Augustine was not the first to recognize this fact, similar to Irenaeus and his perception of original sin. Infant baptism had been practiced by the Roman Catholic Church centuries before Augustine composed his line of reasoning on baptism.According to Augustine the only way to safe guard an infant child against the perils of sin was to baptize them. Augustine postulated that unless infants were baptized and partook of the Eucharist they would not have eternal life. Infants have been born guilty, due to their solidarity in Adam, and stand in need of redemption. When faced with the objection that infants must be exempt from original sin since they cannot will freely, Augustine replied that there is nothing absurd in speaking of their original sin as 8 voluntary since it is derived from the free act of their first parent.Although Pelagiu s and Julian would contest this practice, the Catholic Church, and Protestant Orthodoxy (Anglican and Greek Orthodox) still practice infant baptism in this present time. Augustine recalls his own baptism, Ambrose the Bishop of Milan prepared Augustine for baptism. According to Paulinus, Ambrose was personally involved in initiating all catechumens. Though Ambrose and Augustine had little personal contact, they would have spent considerable time together during the period of Lent leading up to the Easter baptism†¦. eing baptized on Easter in the year A. D. 337. Augustine particular consideration to the baptizing of infants’ remains in controversy today, the Protestant Evangelical church does not hold to the doctrine of infant baptism; salvation is not contingent upon baptism or vice versa. Early on in his life Augustine while in his firt return trip to Africa, he thought it peculiar that infant baptism was practiced professing, â€Å"How could this be truly valuable, doi ng this to babies who have no understanding of what was going on. â€Å"Hope does not disappoint, because the love of God has been poured out within our hearts through the Holy Spirit who was given to us† (Romans 5:5). Augustine comes to the conclusion that baptism brings the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. This Gift which is the Holy Spirit is called by later theologians â€Å"uncreated grace. † What Augustine calls the grace of caritas is called sanctifying or habitual grace in late theology†¦ All sins are forgiven at baptism, that is to say, original sin and actual sins if the believer has committed them.Nevertheless, Augustine as a new Bishop felt duty-bound to carry on with the ritual of baptizing infants. Infant baptism caused no harm both spiritually and physically, having an added advantage of removing the 9 blemish of the original sin inherited from Adam. Augustine viewed baptism as a sacrament of regeneration, â€Å"But the sacrament of baptism is undoub tedly the sacrament of regeneration: Wherefore, as the man who has never lived cannot die, and he who has never died cannot rise again, so he who has never been born cannot be born again.From which the conclusion arises, that no one who has not been born could possibly have been born again in his father. Born again, however, a man must be, after he has been born; because, ‘Except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God' Even an infant, therefore, must be imbued with the sacrament of regeneration, lest without it his would be an unhappy exit out of this life; and this baptism is not administered except for the remission of sins. And so much does Christ show us in this very passage; for when asked, how could such things be?He reminded His questioner of what Moses did when he lifted up the serpent. Inasmuch, then, as infants are by the sacrament of baptism conformed to the death of Christ, it must be admitted that they are also freed from the serpent's poisonous bit e, unless we willfully wander from the rule of the Christian faith. This bite, however, they did not receive in their own actual life, but in him on whom the wound was primarily inflicted. † As the church began to grow and dominate pagan societies it is evident that infant baptism took root and became a normal sacramental ritual. ubsequently, this turned out to be discernible, established upon the reality that in the ancient church baptism existed as an induction ritual into the body of believers, and those infants that are born into the body of believers are so are baptized, signifying being a part of the community . Another aspect seems to have been the increase in awareness on the matter of original sin and the idea that baptism sluiced away the blemish of original sin. Finally, the rules initially were understood as actually conveying grace and accomplishing something spiritually.Early on, approximately A. D. 400 Augustine petitions to the common observance of infant bapti sm as evidence that the church perceived infants to be born with the blemish of original sin. We find clear mention of infant baptism from Tertullian around A. D. 208. â€Å"The Lord does indeed say, forbid them not to come unto me. Let them come, 10 then, while they are growing up; let them come while they are learning, while they are learning whither to come; let them become Christians when they have become able to know Christ.Why does the innocent period of life hasten to the remission of sins? † Opposition to Augustine’s View of Original Sin In the course of Augustine ‘s life he spent a large quantity of his time contesting claims made by contemporaries of his day; such as, theologians, fellow Bishops, monks, and theorist. Of all his writing the most hotly contested was his writing on inherit sin (original sin) and his greatest opposition came from two men, Pelagius, and a follower of Pelagius, a man by the name of Julian of Eclanum who championed the priestà ¢â‚¬â„¢s ideas after his death.In 412 Augustine single-handedly launched an attack on Pelagius and, until his death in 430; much of his energy was concentrated on writing many anti-Pelagian diatribes. Regarding that â€Å"arch-heretic† Augustine thundered: â€Å"How hostile to salvation by Christ is his poisonous perversion of the truth! † Similarly, in modern times the same tactics take place in debate or public discourse on the idea of original sin, nonetheless, the preliminary groundwork can be attributed to Augustine compositions on the subject in the later 4th and early 5th centuries.The Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin proposed to free and candid examination written by John Taylor is an example of contemporaries who contend with one another, his opponent was John Calvin’s and his writing on the doctrine of original sin. John Taylor like Augustine spends a great deal of time writing on the subject of original sin, particularly on the Genesis account; akin to Augustine, Taylor was enthused by the same section of scripture. In his reflection Taylor states, â€Å"Here observe, that for 11 nything that appears in the text, their sin the evil action they committed was personal-setting aside the tempter, no body committed that sinful act of disobedience but they themselves; first Eve and then Adam†¦the evil action was personal and committed by them so the punishment only belongs to them. † This statement is evident to the opposing view to Augustine that Taylor had in regards to original sin, according to him Adams sin was not inherit in humanity or a legacy that all of humanity would have to contend with.John Wesley in 1817 would write, The Doctrine of Original Sin: According to Scripture, Reason, and Experience, in Answer to Dr. Taylor was written nearly thirty years after the death of Taylor, confutes his ideology on original sin. Augustine a prolific writer composed many writings on multiple doctrines, his time as a Bishop was filled with effort to defend the faith against heresies from an earlier period in his life and those in his present. For example, the Donatist, Manichaeism, and Platonist Philosophies would impart and influence Augustine perception, life, and spiritual formation.Bearing in mind that Augustine adhered to some of these ideas during his late teens through young adulthood it is important to discuss their effect on his underlying principle, appraisal, and system of belief. Manichean Influence on Augustine’s View on Original Sin â€Å"As a Catholic Christian reflecting on his Manichaean past, Augustine felt it was necessary to stay away from patterns that had encouraged his pride. Augustine’s writings, especially the Confessions, demonstrate that he came to believe that Manichaean’s in general, and he himself in particular, had taken great pride in their false wisdom, the status it brought 2 them, and their abilities to enlist more people into the sect. † A lthough there is no evidence which may indicate a direct influence by this sect on Augustine’s point of view in regards to original sin, those in opposition to his view had speculated, possibly erroneously that a connection can be made, primarily because Augustine had such a harsh view on the Manichean. The main adherents to this speculation were the followers of Pelagius, â€Å"On account of a superficial resemblance between the doctrine of original sin and the Manichaeism theory of our nature being evil, the Pelagians accused the Catholics and St.Augustine of Manichaeism. † The proponents of Augustine have indicted him misguidedly, the belief that Augustine was the originator of the view on original sin and it being an offshoot of Manichaean fatalism. The apostle Paul speaks on the matter first and then Ireaneus of Lyons following in apostolic succession being trained by Polycarp goes on to quote the writings of Paul in Romans 5:12. Additionally, using the Genesis ac count, Ireaneus sought to bring cohesiveness to the argument in relation to the need of Christ saving fallen man and infant baptism many years before Augustine writes exhaustively and extensively on the topic.The two main features of Manichaean doctrine were, â€Å"Light (good) and darkness (evil) both being equal, timeless, and in great conflict with each other†¦man is lost and fallen in existence, but in essence he is a particle of Light and thus one in substance with God. Individual salvation consists in grasping this truth by illumination from God’s Spirit; Christ appears as merely a prophet and is not really incarnate. † The Gnostic form of belief (Manicheanism) did not believe in the redemptive work 13 f Christ nor did they observe the sacrament of baptism, therefore connecting Augustine writing on original sin to the Manichean belief on good and evil is ill-defined and wanders off the point when compared. Augustine as an older man admits his folly as a juve nile and young man studying the Manichean belief; recognizing his understanding about the nature of God was lacking to say the least because no one had ever educated t him otherwise. Therefore was I repelled by Thee, and Thou resistedst my changeable stiff neckedness; and I imagined corporeal forms, and, being flesh, I accused flesh, and, being â€Å"a wind that passeth away,† I returned not to Thee, but went wandering and wandering on towards those things that have no being, neither in Thee, nor in me, nor in the body. Neither were they created for me by Thy truth, but conceived by my vain conceit out of corporeal things. And I used to ask Thy faithful little ones, my fellow-citizens,—from whom I unconsciously stood exiled,—I used flippantly and foolishly to ask, â€Å"Why, then, doth the soul which God created err? But I would not permit any one to ask me, â€Å"Why, then, doth God err? † And I contended that Thy immutable substance erred of constraint , rather than admit that my mutable substance had gone astray of free will, and erred as a punishment. † This and others statements made by Augustine provide proof of him separating from the doctrine held by the Manicheans and it also demonstrates that the doctrine of original sin cannot be scrutinized in light of Manichaean doctrine or said influenced the doctrine of original sin.Pelagius, Celestiu, and Julian in opposition with Original Sin. There were some who opposed Augustine position on original; however the writings we have today clearer places Pelagius, a disciple of Pelagius named Celestisus, and a Southern Italian Bishop, Julian of Eclanum as the primary opposition Augustine had to contend with in his day. Pelagius (360-420 A. D) was a religious British monk who was extremely distinctive from Augustine and his foundation influential dogma that traditional Western Christendom adheres to today.A clash was inevitable and it came when Pelagius and his disciple Celestius left Italy in 14 409 in the face of an invasion and settled in Carthage, North Africa. The ensuing confrontation has since become known as the â€Å"Pelagian Controversy. † The details of this controversy comprise of several facets, the relationship between God and humanity respecting the doctrines of free will, sin, and grace. Pelagius for all instance and purposes, absolutely believed that the sin Adam committed was not transmitted to all of Humanity. Nothing good, and nothing evil, on account of which we are deemed either laudable or blameworthy, is born with us, but is done by us: for we are born not fully developed, but with a capacity for either conduct; we are formed naturally without either virtue or vice; and previous to the action of our own proper will, the only thing in man is what God has formed in him. † The statement made by Pelagius is in direct contention to the view of Original sin as presented by Augustine which held that the human will was incapable obtaining eternal life without the grace of God through Jesus Christ.Additionally, Pelagius concept of original sin consisted in an â€Å"imitation† of Adam and can be eliminated by an â€Å"imitation† of Christ and also taught infant baptism was not needed for the remission of any â€Å"original guilt. † This view of human nature received a great deal of criticism. Celestius, Pelagius, and their close associates were condemned at Carthage in C. E. 412. Other condemnations followed at Carthage and Milevum in 416 and at the great African council in Carthage in 418. The doctrine was finally anathematized at the Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus in July of 431. 5 Augustine spent a great deal of time contending with the views held by Pelagius and others who followed his doctrine; Augustine was even asked by an imperial commissioner for instruction on how to deal with Pelagius. Augustine then after so much time disproving Pelagius had to vie with another antagonist , a Bishop and disciple of Pelagius, Julian of Eclanum. Julian Eclanum (c. 386- c. 455 A. D. ) promoted the belief’s of Pelagius several decades after his death. Julian expressed sharply his objection to the idea of a fundamental taint in human nature connected to Adam’s sin.Julian was one of many who had a great deal of trepidation with the theology of Augustine and would write multiple volumes spurning Augustine’s doctrine. Julian made several charges against Augustine and the Catholic Church; however, he would focus primarily on Augustine view of grace, original sin, and infant baptism. Julian charged Augustine with relapsing back into Manichean fatalism by teaching on the need for grace. â€Å"Julian chief charge of Mancihesim is predominantly related to its position that there is an evil principle at war against the good principle.He objected to Augustine’s doctrine of original sin as implying that all are born the power of the devil and have to be re-born in Christ. † Julian like most followers of Pelagius considered the sin of Adam less grave than Cain’s murder of Abel as evil, along these lines of thinking Julian purports a question, â€Å"why would God punish Adam’s sin with quite disproportionate penalty? † Answering the question states, that God would not; therefore, we have not inherited a skewed sinful nature from Adam. Additionally, going to say that man nature is similar to Adam before his fall, all people start off fall when it comes to sin.These and other 16 charges made by Julian would be proved false by Augustine; nevertheless, Julian succeeded in causing great distraction and Augustine would spend the latter part of his life contending with the Pelagian disciple. Conclusion Augustine the Bishop of Hippo is considered one of the greatest church fathers and apologetics in all Christendom; he made an immense contribution to Church dogma, holding people in the early church accountable to s cripture. Although his writings are now centuries old, have stood the test of time and provide fundamental essentials that the church today adheres too.Like some before him, Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, and Ignatius, Augustine understood scripture as being delicately shrouded allegorical idioms, purposely arrange by God in order for man to seek Him out through inquiry. Augustine thorough inquiry attempted to focus on and solve many theological and existential questions that many then and many today ponder over. For instance, Augustine writes on the need for sacramental baptism, prevenient grace, freewill, evil, original sin, turmoil, tragedy, human nature, and false doctrine. The answers to these philosophical, heological, and spiritual questions would take a life-time for Augustine to traverse, establishing him solidly as a great apologist, theologian, and more importantly a man of God. Augustine’s theology was shaped and formed through early life experience. Being inclined t o sin (lust of the flesh) saying of himself â€Å"so small a boy, so great a sinner† This brings to light a frame of thought Augustine details in two of his better known writings, City of God, and Confessions. In the compositions Augustine brings clarity and a deeper level of thought on multiple subjects, his candid memory illustrating his early innocence evolving, while 17 t the same time, providing great intellectual thought on substantive issues relating to scripture, dogma, heresies spiritual formation, faith, love, maturity, and much more, which would aid the church in its infancy. Overall Augustine presented a message that reiterated Romans 5:12, and the blessed hope (Christ) that all humanity is certain of, by God’s Grace to atone for our sins. 18 Bibliography Alan Jacobs. Original Sin, A Cultural History. 1st Edition. New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2001. Ambrose, Saint (Bishop of Milan: Ide M. Ni Riain). Commentary of Saint Ambrose on the Gospel according to Sain t Luke.Halcyon Press in association with Elo Publications, 2001. Augustine, Saint. Confessions of Saint Augustine. Translated by Edward B. Pusey, D. D. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library. Augustine, Saint, A Treatise on Nature and Grace in Nicene Post Nicene Fathers, trans. Peter Holmes, ed. Philip Schaff. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library Augustine, Saint. On Forgiveness of Sin, and Baptism, translated by Phillip Schaff. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library. Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo, a Biography. 2nd Edition.Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2000. Clark, Mary. Augustine. New York London: Continuum, 2001. Etwell, Walter A. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich. Carlisle, Cumbria, U. K: Baker Academic Paternoster Press, 2001. Hall, Christopher. Learning Theology with the Church Fathers. Downers Grove, Ill: Intervarsity Press, 2002. Harent, S. â€Å"Original Sin. † Catholic Encycl opedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Hiestand, Gerald. â€Å"Augustine and the justification debates: appropriating Augustine's doctrine of culpability. Trinity Journal 28, no. 1 (March 1, 2007): 115-139. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). Irenaeus of Lyons, Irenaues Against Heries: Ante- Nicene Church Fathers, Philip Schaff, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library. McCann, C. (2009). Influence of Manichaeism on Augustine of Hippo as a spiritual mentor. Cistercian Studies Quarterly, 44(3), 255-277. Nassif, Bradley L. â€Å"Toward a â€Å"catholic† understanding of St Augustine's view of original sin. † Union Seminary Quarterly Review 39, no. 4 (January 1, 1984): 287-299.ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). 19 Papageorgiou, P. (1995). Chrysostom and Augustine on the Sin of Adam and Its Consequences. St Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, 39(4), 361-378. Ph ipps, William E. â€Å"The heresiarch : Pelagius or Augustine?. † Anglican Theological Review 62, no. 2 (April 1, 1980): 124-133. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). Smither, Edward. Augustine as Mentor: A Model for Preparing Spiritual Leaders. Nashville, Tenn: B ; H Academic, 2008 Taylor, John.The Doctrine of Original Sin Proposed to Free and Candid Examination. London: New Castle, 1845. Tertullian, Tertullian on Baptism. Translated by Rev. S. Thelwall. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Nassif, Bradley L. â€Å"Toward a â€Å"catholic† understanding of St Augustine's view of original sin. † Union Seminary Quarterly Review 39, no. 4 (January 1, 1984): 287-299. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). [ 2 ]. Alan Jacobs, Original Sin, A Cultural History (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 2001), ix. [ 3 ].Gerald Hiestand, â€Å"Augustine and the justification debates: appropriating Augustine's doctrine of culpability. † Trinity Journal 28, no. 1 (March 1, 2007): 115-139. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). [ 4 ]. Mary Clark, Augustine (New York London: Continuum, 2001), 2-3. [ 5 ]. Edward Smither, Augustine As Mentor: A Model for Preparing Spiritual Leaders (Nashville, Tenn: B & H Academic, 2008), 103. [ 6 ]. Ide M. Ni Riain Saint Ambrose (Bishop of Milan), Commentary of Saint Ambrose on the Gospel according to Saint Luke (Halcyon Press in association with Elo Publications, 2001). 7 ]. Walter Elwell, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (Grand Rapids, Mich. Carlisle, Cambria, and U. K: Baker Academic Paternoster Press, 2001), 1103. [ 8 ]. Ibid, 1103 [ 9 ]. P. Papageorgiou. (1995). Chrysostom and Augustine on the Sin of Adam and Its Consequences. St Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, 39(4), 361-378. [ 10 ]. Augustine, Saint. Confessions of Saint Augustine. translated by Edward B. Pusey, D. D. (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), Book 1, 7 [ 11 ]. Ibid, Confessions Book V, 8 [ 12 ]. Mary Clark, Augustine (New York London: Continuum, 2001), 50-51. 13 ]. Ibid, 121-123. [ 14 ]. Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo, a Biography, 2nd Edition (Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2000), 419. [ 15 ]. Clark, 55. [ 16 ]. Bradley L Nassif. â€Å"Toward a â€Å"catholic† understanding of St Augustine's view of original sin. † Union Seminary Quarterly Review 39, no. 4 (January 1, 1984): 287-299. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). [ 17 ]. Nassif, 287-299. [ 18 ]. B. J. Gundlach and Walter A. Etwell ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Augustine of Hippo (Grand Rapids, Mich. Carlisle, Cumbria, U.K: Baker Academic Paternoster Press, 2001), 123. [ 19 ]. Irenaeus of Lyons, Irenaues Against Heries: Ante- Nicene Church Fathers, Philip Schaff, ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), Book V, chapter 23. [ 20 ]. Nassif, 287-299. [ 21 ]. Edward Smither, Augustine as Mentor: A Model for Preparing Spiritual Leaders. Nashville (Ten: B & H Academic, 2008), 104. [ 22 ]. Saint Augustine, Concerning the City of God, trans. Rev Marcus Dodds, D. D. (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), Book XII, 22. [ 23 ]. Clark, 95. [ 24 ]. Nassif, 287-299. 25 ]. Smither, 107-108. [ 26 ]. Brown, 387. [ 27 ]. Clark, 46. [ 28 ]. Saint Augustine, On Forgiveness of Sin, and Baptism, translated by Phillip Schaff (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), 43:27 [ 29 ]. Tertullian, Tertullian on Baptism, translated by Rev. S. Thelwall (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), Book 2. [ 30 ]. William E Phipps. â€Å"The Heresiarch: Pelagius or Augustine? † Anglican Theological Review 62, no. 2 (April 1, 1980): 124-133 . ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). [ 31 ].John Taylor The Doctrine of Original Sin Proposed to Free and Candid Examination, (London: New Castle, 1845), 6-7. [ 32 ]. C. McCann, (2009). Influence of Manichaeism on Augustine of Hippo as a spiritual mentor. Cistercian Studies Quarterly, 44(3), 255-277. [ 33 ]. Harent, S. â€Å"Original Sin. † Catholic Encyclopedia. (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911). Retrieved October 7, 2012 from New Advent: www. newadvent. org/cathen11312. htm. [ 34 ]. W. A. Hoffecker,. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Walter A. Elwell ed. Grand Rapids, Mich (Carlisle, Cumbria, U. K: Baker Academic Paternoster Press, 2001), 729. 35 ]. Augustine, Confession, Book IV, 15. [ 36 ]. Nassif, 287-299. [ 37 ]. Ibid. [ 38 ]. Augustine, â€Å"A Treatise on Nature and Grace† in Nicene Post Nicene Fathers, trans. Peter Holmes, ed Philip Schaff (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), book V, 14 . [ 39 ]. Mary Clark, Augustine (New York London: Continuum, 2001), 48. [ 40 ]. Nassif, 287-299. [ 41 ]. Clark, 48. [ 42 ]. Hall, Christopher. Learning theology with the church fathers. Downers Grove (Ill: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 134. [ 43 ]. Clark 50-51 [ 44 ]. Hall, 146. [ 45 ]. Ibid [ 46 ]. Clark, Augustine, 2.

Online Marketing Research Proposal Writing Tips

Online Marketing Research Proposal Writing Tips Online Marketing Research Proposal Writing Tips Would you ever decide to start your own business without business plan? If you are responsible enough, you have definitely said â€Å"no† to the question. Businessmen are really careful when the question is about spending marketing dollars, but the truth is that sometimes they do not pay due attention to the effective marketing research. When you need to deal with the marketing research proposal writing, make sure to follow simple tips mentioned below while planning the project. Aims and Objectives When working on this section, ensure to include the basic goals of the marketing research. Also, remember to provide specific objectives of the project. Your number one task is to explain the value of the research that you are going to conduct, stating why exactly your proposal should be approved and mentioning all useful and positive results and gains your research will bring. Magnified Market Research word illustration on white background. Framework Analysis Although this part of the marketing research proposal is tightly linked with the objectives and aims section, it must be more concentrated on depth of the background circumstances that indicate the reasons why the certain marketing research project is actually proposed. While the objectives and aims of the paper provide descriptions for the specific research outcomes, the framework analysis segment must show the practical standpoint of these outcomes. The author is required to provide information from trustworthy sources on the topic he is researching. Then one can demonstrate the certain need for the proposed research plan. Hypothesis As a rule, hypothesis includes only a couple of sentences and provides the reader with an overview of the research possible outcomes. Data Collection Make use this very part of marketing research proposal in order to provide a thorough description for each of the data collection methods that you are going to use during the research phase. Feel free to address the overall strategy or the methods of the individual data collection. As a rule, they include such methods as social networking research, focus groups, in-home tests, etc. Make sure to be clear and specific about every method. The thing is that the more detailed the section will be, the more chances you will have to see your proposal accepted. Research Methods This is where you can talk about the research methods merits. Make sure to discuss the implications of every data collection method, as well as to explain all the methods that you are going to use in order to interpret information. Besides, you will also need to discuss the means used to evaluate all data that has been collected. Budget Timeline This very segment must detail the timeline that your project research will follow. In order to get your proposal approved, make sure to pay due attention to the specifics. Provide a short and realistic budget projection for your marketing research proposal. Ethical Considerations These issues are highly crucial for any research. This is the section that you should use to delineate each of the ways that your research will abide by the ethical code in practice and method. Plus, among the rest of the responsibilities, address factors like data security, privacy, confidentiality and research participants consent. At you have a great opportunity to get professional research proposal help from highly qualified academic experts. Check it out!

The History of Vending Machines

The History of Vending Machines Vending or automatic retailing, as the process of selling merchandise via automated machine is increasingly known, has a long history. The first recorded example of the vending machine comes from the Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria, who  invented a device that dispensed  holy water inside Egyptian temples.   Other early examples include small machines made of brass that dispensed tobacco, were found in  some taverns in England around  1615.  In 1822, an English  publisher and bookshop owner named  Richard Carlile built a newspaper dispensing machine  that allowed patrons to purchase banned works. And it was in  1867 that the first fully automatic vending machine, which  dispensed  stamps, appeared.   Coin-Operated Vending Machines During the early 1880s, the first commercial coin-operated vending machines were introduced in London, England. Invented in 1883 by  Percival Everitt, the machines were found at railway stations and  post offices, as they were a convenient way to purchase  envelopes,  postcards, and  notepaper. And in 1887, the first vending machine servicer, the  Sweetmeat Automatic Delivery Company, was founded.   In 1888, the Thomas Adams Gum Company introduced the very first vending machines to the United States. The machines were installed on the elevated subway platforms in New York City and sold Tutti-Fruiti gum. In 1897, the Pulver Manufacturing Company added animated figures to its gum machines as an added attraction. The round, candy-coated gumball, and gumball vending machines were introduced in 1907. Coin-Operated Restaurants Soon, vending machines were available that offered almost everything, including cigars, postcards, and stamps. In Philadelphia, a completely coin-operated automat restaurant called Horn Hardart was opened in 1902 and stayed opened until 1962. Such fast-food restaurants, called automats, only took nickels and were popular among struggling  songwriters and  actors, as well as celebrities of that era.   Beverage Vending Machines Machines that dispensed drinks go as far back as 1890. The very first beverage vending machine was located in Paris, France and allowed people to buy beer wine and liquor. In the early 1920s, the first automatic vending machines started dispensing  sodas  into cups. Today, beverages are among the most popular items sold through vending machines.   Cigarettes in Vending Machines In 1926, an American inventor named William Rowe invented the cigarette vending machine. Over time, however, they became increasingly less common in the United States due to concerns over underage buyers. In other countries, vendors have addressed the issue by requiring that some sort of age verification, such as a drivers license, bank card or ID be inserted before a purchase can be made. Cigarette dispensing machines are still common in  Germany, Austria, Italy, the Czech Republic, and Japan.   Specialty Vending Machines Food, beverages, and cigarettes are the most common items sold in vending machines, but the list of specialty items sold by this form of automation is almost endless, as a quick survey of any airport or bus terminal will tell you. The vending machine industry took a big jump around 2006 when credit card scanners started to become common on vending machines. Within ten years, almost every new vending machine was equipped to accept credit cards. This opened the door to the sale of many high-priced items through vending machines. Here are just some of the specialty products that have been offered via vending machine:   Fishing baitOn-line internet timeLottery ticketsBooksElectronics, including I-pads,  cell phones, digital cameras, and computers.  Hot foods, such as french fries and pizzaLife insuranceCondoms and other contraceptivesOver-the-counter drugsMarijuanaAutomobiles Yes, you read that last item correctly.  In late 2016, Autobahn Motors in Singapore opened a luxury car vending machine that offered Ferrari  and  Lamborghini  cars. Buyers clearly need hefty limits on their credit cards.   Japan, Land of the Vending Machines Japan has gained a reputation for having some of the most innovative use of vending machines, offering machines that offer products including fresh fruits and vegetables, sake, hot foods, batteries, flowers, clothing and, of course, sushi. In fact, Japan has the highest per capita rate of vending machines in the world.   The Future of Vending Machines A coming trend is the advent of smart vending machines that offer things like cashless payment; face, eye, or fingerprint recognition,  and social media connectivity. It is likely that the vending machines of the future will recognize your identity and tailor their offerings to your interests and tastes. A beverage vending machine, for example, may well recognize what you have purchased at other vending machines all around the world and ask you if you want your usual skim latte with a double shot of vanilla.   Market research projects that by 2020, 20% of all vending machines will be smart machines, with at least 3.6 million units knowing who you are and what youd like.

Youth cell phones compasny Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Youth cell phones compasny - Essay Example Why do you think the YCP Company had been able to grow in just over five years? The first five years of YCP were marked by strong growth for a number of reasons. An important factor is the strong growth of the market for mobile and internet technology, as this was the period of commercial introduction and fast development in these areas, so the rise in demand was strong, particularly in its chosen niche (young mobile and internet customers) and the industry still generally open to new entrants. Based on data provided, the following information was computed: YCP performance for the last five years Year ended Revenues (MUSD) No. of Subscribers Ave. rev. per subscriber 1998 80.0 100,000 800.00 1999 200.0 195,000 1,025.64 2000 270.0 330,000 818.18 2001 380.0 680,000 558.82 2002 750.0 1,970,000 380.71 The first three columns were data provided, form which the average revenue per subscriber was computed in the last column. It was evident that from the third year onwards, the sales growth a chieved by YCP was on the basis of attracting new volume by lowering prices. While the cost figures are not given for us to compute the breakeven point, it is sufficient to note that by 2001, the firm was offering its services for prices below its introductory rates in 1998, which may indicate that the company is operating at below breakeven prices. 2) What impression have you formed of corporate governance in YCP Company? For the first two years, there appeared to be no indication of major lapses in corporate governance. ... failure, is irregular in the case of YCP because the bonuses are explicitly stated to be based on the appreciation of the company’s stock value rather than on its earnings, which is an untenable basis on which to compute executive compensation. Executive pay and bonuses are anchored on the firm’s earnings, not its market capitalization; therefore, this is a matter to be investigated by the Securities and Exchange Commission. 3) What is your opinion of the ownership structure in YCP, in light of the fact co-administrators Kong and Watson retain 60% of the voting equity. Can group of small shareholders make a significant contribution to the governance of the company? What about large shareholders? As far as ownership structure is concerned, there is no legal or ethical problem in Kong and Watson holding 60% of the equity. A strong controlling interest properly discharged can even articulate business strategy more clearly and create a stronger business (Ozer, et al., 2010, p. 18). It is clear that based on voting rights, Kong and Watson clearly have controlling ownership of the firm. There should be no conflict of interest, however, in their being members of the board, as the board represents the shareholders’ interests which is their own. Being members of the board, however, they are charged with the duty of due diligence and of acting in the interests of all shareholders, not only their own. This does not mean that groups of small shareholder or even large (though minority) shareholders are powerless against decisions but the majority shareholders that are patently inimical to the corporation’s interests. They still are entitled to a full disclosure and complete information about how the company is run, violation of which could be the basis for litigation. SEC